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Preface
1. Introduction
2. The Science of Biology
3. Themes and Concepts of Biology
4. Introduction
5. Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
6. Water
7. Carbon
8. Introduction
9. Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
10. Carbohydrates
11. Lipids
12. Proteins
13. Nucleic Acids
14. Introduction
15. Studying Cells
16. Prokaryotic Cells
17. Eukaryotic Cells
18. The Endomembrane System and Proteins
19. The Cytoskeleton
20. Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities
21. Introduction
22. Components and Structure
23. Passive Transport
24. Active Transport
25. Bulk Transport
26. Introduction
27. Energy and Metabolism
28. Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy
29. The Laws of Thermodynamics
30. ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
31. Enzymes
32. Introduction
33. Energy in Living Systems
34. Glycolysis
35. Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
36. Oxidative Phosphorylation
37. Metabolism without Oxygen
38. Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
39. Regulation of Cellular Respiration
40. Introduction
41. Overview of Photosynthesis
42. The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
43. Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules
44. Introduction
45. Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
46. Propagation of the Signal
47. Response to the Signal
48. Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms
49. Introduction
50. Cell Division
51. The Cell Cycle
52. Control of the Cell Cycle
53. Cancer and the Cell Cycle
54. Prokaryotic Cell Division
55. Introduction
56. The Process of Meiosis
57. Sexual Reproduction
58. Introduction
59. Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability
60. Characteristics and Traits
61. Laws of Inheritance
62. Introduction
63. Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage
64. Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
65. Introduction
66. Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
67. DNA Structure and Sequencing
68. Basics of DNA Replication
69. DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
70. DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
71. DNA Repair
72. Introduction
73. The Genetic Code
74. Prokaryotic Transcription
75. Eukaryotic Transcription
76. RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
77. Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
78. Introduction
79. Regulation of Gene Expression
80. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
81. Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
82. Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation
83. Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
84. Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
85. Cancer and Gene Regulation
86. Introduction
87. Biotechnology
88. Mapping Genomes
89. Whole-Genome Sequencing
90. Applying Genomics
91. Genomics and Proteomics
92. Introduction
93. Understanding Evolution
94. Formation of New Species
95. Reconnection and Speciation Rates
96. Introduction
97. Population Evolution
98. Population Genetics
99. Adaptive Evolution
100. Introduction
101. Organizing Life on Earth
102. Determining Evolutionary Relationships
103. Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
104. Introduction
105. Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification
106. Virus Infections and Hosts
107. Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
108. Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids
109. Introduction
110. Prokaryotic Diversity
111. Structure of Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
112. Prokaryotic Metabolism
113. Bacterial Diseases in Humans
114. Beneficial Prokaryotes
115. Introduction
116. Eukaryotic Origins
117. Characteristics of Protists
118. Groups of Protists
119. Ecology of Protists
120. Introduction
121. Characteristics of Fungi
122. Classifications of Fungi
123. Ecology of Fungi
124. Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
125. Importance of Fungi in Human Life
126. Introduction
127. Early Plant Life
128. Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants
129. Bryophytes
130. Seedless Vascular Plants
131. Introduction
132. Evolution of Seed Plants
133. Gymnosperms
134. Angiosperms
135. The Role of Seed Plants
136. Introduction
137. Features of the Animal Kingdom
138. Features Used to Classify Animals
139. Animal Phylogeny
140. The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom
141. Introduction
142. Phylum Porifera
143. Phylum Cnidaria
144. Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Flatworms, Rotifers, and Nemerteans
145. Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Molluscs and Annelids
146. Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Nematodes and Tardigrades
147. Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Arthropods
148. Superphylum Deuterostomia
149. Introduction
150. Chordates
151. Fishes
152. Amphibians
153. Reptiles
154. Birds
155. Mammals
156. The Evolution of Primates
157. Introduction
158. The Plant Body
159. Stems
160. Roots
161. Leaves
162. Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
163. Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
164. Introduction
165. Nutritional Requirements of Plants
166. The Soil
167. Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
168. Introduction
169. Reproductive Development and Structure
170. Pollination and Fertilization
171. Asexual Reproduction
172. Introduction
173. Animal Form and Function
174. Animal Primary Tissues
175. Homeostasis
176. Introduction
177. Digestive Systems
178. Nutrition and Energy Production
179. Digestive System Processes
180. Digestive System Regulation
181. Introduction
182. Neurons and Glial Cells
183. How Neurons Communicate
184. The Central Nervous System
185. The Peripheral Nervous System
186. Nervous System Disorders
187. Introduction
188. Sensory Processes
189. Somatosensation
190. Taste and Smell
191. Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
192. Vision
193. Introduction
194. Types of Hormones
195. How Hormones Work
196. Regulation of Body Processes
197. Regulation of Hormone Production
198. Endocrine Glands
199. Introduction
200. Types of Skeletal Systems
201. Bone
202. Joints and Skeletal Movement
203. Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
204. Introduction
205. Systems of Gas Exchange
206. Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
207. Breathing
208. Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
209. Introduction
210. Overview of the Circulatory System
211. Components of the Blood
212. Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
213. Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
214. Introduction
215. Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance
216. The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
217. Excretion Systems
218. Nitrogenous Wastes
219. Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
220. Introduction
221. Innate Immune Response
222. Adaptive Immune Response
223. Antibodies
224. Disruptions in the Immune System
225. Introduction
226. Reproduction Methods
227. Fertilization
228. Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
229. Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
230. Human Pregnancy and Birth
231. Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
232. Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
233. Introduction
234. The Scope of Ecology
235. Biogeography
236. Terrestrial Biomes
237. Aquatic Biomes
238. Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
239. Introduction
240. Population Demography
241. Life Histories and Natural Selection
242. Environmental Limits to Population Growth
243. Population Dynamics and Regulation
244. Human Population Growth
245. Community Ecology
246. Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
247. Introduction
248. Ecology of Ecosystems
249. Energy Flow through Ecosystems
250. Biogeochemical Cycles
251. Introduction
252. The Biodiversity Crisis
253. The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
254. Threats to Biodiversity
255. Preserving Biodiversity
The Periodic Table of Elements
Geological Time
Measurements and the Metric System
(credit: Richard S. Murphy, Jr.)
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Biology 2e Copyright © 2018 by OpenStax Biology 2nd Edition is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.